Performance Enhancing Drugs Essay - 1759 Words

Performance Enhancing Drugs When most people think of performance-enhancing drugs the first thought that comes to their minds is the illegal ones like steroids, but today there are more non-illegal drugs like creatine and androstenedione for people today. Creatine is a chemical produced by the kidney and found in meat product. It helps muscles recover after a workout, which in turn helps athletes bulk up faster (Gregorian 5). Creatine is used by many of the nations top college sports teams like Nebraska and Northwestern. The ?Husker Power? strength program uses creatine, where it is meticulously measured and poured to the contours of the designated athlete (Gregorian 1). It is also slurped and scarified down by 25% if of pro†¦show more content†¦So performance-enhancing drugs should not be used because they give the person using them an unfair advantage, has a high monetary cost to keep getting the drugs, and has many negative side effects. Not everyone believes that performance-enhancing drugs should be banned. NU football players Jay Tant and Dwayne Missouri both put on about 30 pounds of muscle during their careers due to creatine and countless hours in the weight room (Carlton 1). ?Creatine helps weightlifters and runners squeeze in an extra rep or stair climbs.? It translates into an average gain of 20- 30 pounds o of muscle in just a few months (Schrof 2). That is the good side of the enhancers. While supporters of performance enhancing drugs have many valid arguments, better evidence supports that they should not be used. The first argument is the person using them has an unfair advantage. Columnist Michael Bamburger for Sports Illustrated wrote that athletes seem to rely more then ever on banned performance enhancers (1). Then just talent, and pure blood, sweat, and tears. Mark Asanovich the strength and conditioning coach for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers discourages the use of any performance enhancers and say?s,Show MoreRelatedPerformance Enhancing Drugs. . Performance-Enhancing Drugs1580 Words   |  7 PagesPerformance Enhancing Drugs Performance-enhancing drugs (PED s) have been an issue for many decades now for the medical and sports field. Olympic and professional athletes have been using them to gain an upper hand on the competition, but some may ask if it s really worth it? Studies show that performance-enhancing drugs have been proven to negatively affect the health of athletes who take them. Simply put, performance-enhancing drugs could either improve athletic performance or can be extremelyRead MorePerformance Enhancing Drugs For Sports1227 Words   |  5 PagesPerformance Enhancing Drugs Sport records are becoming harder   to break and seeing records are starting to become a thing of the past.. 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He notices that some of his teammates have been trying out a new performance enhancing drug. It is not illegal, but it still improvesRead MoreSports and Performance Enhancing Drugs Essay1221 Words   |  5 PagesPerformance enhancing drugs in todays pro sports have become a big deal, because of health stimulants and the benefits that such studies have on good development of the person and on fair athletic games. Pediatricians or trainers can play a huge role in helping the athlete or player that is using or taking performance enhancing drugs. By taking factual info about the true benefits and medical problems of these drugs and giving information about healthy food and working out. Tries to create a changeRead MorePerformance Enhancing Drugs Should Be Banned1645 Words   |  7 Pagesrules by using performance enhancing drugs each year. Performance enhancing drugs help athletes to becomes bigger, faster, and overall better at their individual sport. This process is called doping. Doping can be defined as using drugs and various substances to better perform at a particular task. Furthermore, these athletes act in the moment and fail to see all aspects of these performance enhancing drugs. Contradictorily, some individuals argue that performance enhancing drugs should in fact beRead MoreEthical Dilemmas : Performance Enhancing Drugs1674 Words   |  7 PagesEthical Dilemmas: Performance Enhancing Drugs Today’s society places high-performance athletes on a pedestal and our youth look to become the next superstar. The question plaguing young athletes is â€Å"how can I get there?†. Physical development must be considered for any athlete and this consequently introduces the topic of performance enhancing drugs. These substances can cause physical development to occur faster than the natural rate, making the athlete a step above â€Å"the rest†. Ethical, moralRead MorePerformance Enhancing Drugs Should Be Allowed2071 Words   |  9 Pagesis whether performance enhancing drugs should be allowed. According to the free dictionary, performance enhancing drugs is defined as â€Å"Any drug used to gain an advantage in sports. Such drugs may improve endurance or strength or accelerate healing after injury†. Performance enhancing drugs was first acknowledged as a problem in professional sports in 1967 when the international Olympic committee created a medical b oard due to the heightened use. Today there are seven types of performance enhancers

Embracing Inclusion Addressing The Needs Of Children...

Embracing Inclusion – Addressing the Needs of Children with Differences in Education Kissy Marie Rose Seattle University Abstract This paper discusses the prevalent issues, tensions and biases of the inclusive classroom in today’s educational setting. The major issues explored are: Cost, Benefits, Effectiveness and Controversy. In addition, two personal interviews are taken into account from parents with children within the educational system and their thoughts, hopes, dreams, and grievances and their day-to-day accounts of successes and challenges. What’s important to note is like many parents, the parents interviewed, have hopes for their children that transcends and surpasses any normality, after all they have to think†¦show more content†¦Now it is crucial that all of teachers ensure inclusive practice for all students in their classroom and the wider school. Under the inclusion model, students with special needs spend most or all of their time with non-disabled students. Implementation of inclusion practice varies and schools most frequently use the strategy for select students w ith mild to severe special needs.† (2000 Allen, K.E.) The most important part of Allen’s quote that applies today, â€Å"Now it is crucial that all teachers ensure inclusive practice for all students in their classroom and the wider school† has become a true paradox. It is now a rallying cry, be it from the controversial challenges, the federal/state requirements or the lofty goal of superintendent, administrator or educator. What is now clear based on the current laws, such as the Americans with Disability Act (ADA), Disability Education Act (IDEA), Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE), and published guidelines, is that Inclusion is for everyone, not just disabled children. â€Å"Special Needs† is now inclusive of children with communication disorders, emotional behavioral disorders, developmental disorders, disabilities, and gifted or talented children as well. The (4) four major issues involved are: Cost, Benefits, Effectiveness and the one that must be considered both separately and inclusively, the issue of Controversy. So let’s take a closer look at each.

Means of Internationalization Foreign Markets

Question: Discuss about theMeans of Internationalizationfor Foreign Markets. Answer: Introduction The internationalization is the process of increasing the association of business entities with the foreign markets. The international business has existed for thousands of years with exports and imports of the local products. However, in the past several business enterprises have opted to enter into other countries to expand their market, compensating the local market decline, reducing operational and distribution costs and distributing risks. It has increased the number of multinational firms across the globe and these firms contribute significantly to the local economy and provide employment to the people. Previously, internationalization was considered as a phenomenon of the Western enterprises and the companies originating from the triad of the USA, Europe and Japan expanding their business in the international markets (IESE, 2015). However, the contemporary multinational firms are originating from China, India, South Korea, Brazil and Russia. It shows the transformation in the current business scenario. There are several theoretical paradigms used to explain the internationalization of the firms. In the resource-based view, the companies elect the internationalization strategy as they have numerous resources awarded by their home economy. The companies use the internationalization strategy to get better opportunities and create competitive advantages for themselves. These resources can be intangible or tangible and may have a time window. Sometimes, these resources may prove disadvantageous for the business organization. These disadvantages can be associated with the country or the firm wherein the business enterprise is operating. The companies may expand to overcome these disadvantages and gain competitive advantage through the acquisition of the new assets. The business organizations try hard to attain benef icial resources as they are hard to replace (Marinov and Marinova, 2011). In this essence, in this paper, the various means of internationalization selected by the business organizations is discussed. Along with it, the internationalization models are also described in the paper. Reasons for Internationalization The most common type of internationalization trade strategies are exporting, importing and countertrade. A business organization usually prefers internationalization by exports as it is the most common strategy for expanding into the foreign markets. It is important for business organizations to select the internationalization strategy according to their business model and the basic motivation for internationalization. The motivation of the employees can be classified in two categories, namely, reactive and proactive. The reactive motivation occurs when the company follows its major customers or clients in the international markets. In contrast to it, the companies pursuing high growth markets in the foreign countries are motivated by proactive reasons. Other than that, a company may pursue internationalization to enhance its knowledge and learning. Although there are diverse motivations for the internationalization of the firms, the fundamental behind all is the growth of the compan y. The internationalization of a business organization begins with the recruitment of personnel, experienced in international markets or recruiting international employees. Along with it, an internationalization strategy is selected to pursue the foreign market goals. The technological advancements have also contributed to the internationalization of the business as the companies can communicate easily with the global clients (Marinov and Marinov, 2011). The business organizations can manage the foreign subsidiaries easily by using the air travel and email networks. A number of companies pursue internationalization strategies to reduce their budget. Today, a large number of business enterprises outsource their business from the countries with a relatively low cost of living and expenditure. It reduces their overhead cost and increase profits. Other than that, by going global the companies may reduce their dependency on the local markets and can safeguard themselves from the fluctuations in the local market. For instance, the sudden decrease in the demand of the customers or increase in the market share due to arrival of competitors negatively impacts a firms business. A company can protect itself from the negative impact by venturing into the international markets. A greater market for the company means large profits. Moreover, the multinational business organizations also adapt their products and services to suit the local culture t o achieve market penetration. Sometimes, the companies also focus on entering into the under-developed market to gain market share (Ebner, 2011). Internationalization Strategies The selection of the foreign market entry strategy is dependent upon the associated risk, control and the requirement of the resources. Moreover, different market entry strategy promises different returns on the financial investments. The market entry mode is differentiated in two modes, namely, non-equity mode and equity mode. In the non-equity mode, the companies use the strategy of export and contractual agreements. In the non-equity mode, the companies use the strategy of joint ventures and wholly owned subsidiary. The market entry strategy of export provides lowest level of risk and least market control. In contrast to it, the market entry strategy providing highest market control and expected return on investment are associated with acquisitions and Greenfield investments. As discussed above, exporting is a popular foreign market entry due to limited risks, expenses and requirement of little knowledge of the foreign markets. In this strategy, the companies conduct al the production and the manufacturing in the local country and deliver it to the customers in the foreign market (Zou and Kim, 2009). The company can conduct its marketing, distribution and customer service activities in the foreign market itself or contract with an independent distributor for it. The strategy is preferred by the small and medium enterprises and first time entrants to the foreign markets. Exporting is a very flexible strategy to enter into the foreign markets. Compared to other strategies, in export the companies can easily withdraw from the foreign markets in case of low profits. The expenses and the risks associated with internationalization are very low (Haak, 2003). There are two types of exporting, namely, direct exporting and indirect exporting. In the direct exportin g the business enterprise becomes directly involved in the marketing and advertising of the products. Contrary to it, in thee indirect exporting, the companies do not get involved in the marketing and distribution of the international products. Licensing in another foreign market entry strategy characterized with limited degree of risk. As per this strategy, the firms give license to the patents, trademarks and copyrights. Additionally, the firms also share knowledge regarding the business processes and the products. The licensor returns the investment by paying specific licensing fees. Several business organizations use this method as it promotes their products in the foreign territories. It is a common method adopted by the public authorities as it brings new skills and knowledge in their place (Twarowska and Kakol, 2013). Franchising is also a similar concept to licensing. However, in this method, the business organizations are more directly involved in development and control of the promotion and advertising of the products. In this method, the franchisees pay specific fees and royalty to the franchiser to obtain the trademark of the company. The franchisee is a semi-independent business organization which is supported by the parent company in terms of technology and finances. The franchisee uses the trademark along with the business format and the technology. In comparison to the licensing, franchising builds a long-term relationship with the local organization. The set of resources and the rights provided by the organization are also broad in range, such as the franchisor provides equipments, training and finances. However, in franchising, the parent company is liable to provide knowledge of the business processes and necessary resources whereas in licensing, the agreement is made upon the intellec tual property and trade secrets. There are several benefits of franchising mode of operations such as low political interference, low cost, option to simultaneously expand in different regions of the world and choice to select the partner according to their financial and managerial capability. However, several times, the franchisee may develop into the future competitors. Along with it, a wrong franchisee can tarnish the reputation of the parent company. When compared to the internationalization strategies of licensing and exporting, it requires heavy financial investment to manage the subsidiaries in the foreign companies. A large number of business organizations prefer joint ventures due to their huge financial investments. It has several common characteristics with licensing. The companies utilizing joint ventures to enter into the foreign markets partake in management decisions ad hold a substantial amount of equity. The companies form a partnership which is called joint venture. In the joint ventures, the companies hold a substantial control over the local subsidiaries, its operations and provide the company with adequate local market knowledge. The parent organization can access the relationship network of the local company and expand its knowledge. Moreover, the firms are exposed to limited risk due to partnerships with the local companies. It is quite popular foreign market entry strategy as it avoids the control problems associated with other types of international ventures and the firm can acquire the local market knowledge from the local firm (Hewitt, 2005). Another strategy to venture into the foreign market is creating strategic alliance. A strategic alliance encompasses various modes of international ventures, such as joint venture, shared venture or minority equity participation. The common characteristics of all these strategic alliance are they are developed in highly industrialized nations, they emphasis on product development and research rather than distributing them and the time duration for the strategic alliance is small in comparison to other joint ventures. One of the primary intents of the strategic alliance is the exchange of the technology for the research and development. The companies prefer creating strategic alliance for the research and innovation as there is hardly any firm possesses all the necessary resources to foster innovation. Moreover, the short product lifecycle and increases competition forces the company to remain competitive in the marketplace (Martnez-Fierro, 2006). Models for Internationalization of Business The internationalization of a business organization is characterized by excessive diversity and its systematization. Therefore, the systematic internationalization of a business organization can be described through several models of internationalization. All the models of internationalization can be classified in three categories, namely, progressive, contingency and interactive model. The progressive model considers internationalization as a progressive process wherein a firm attains internationalization through several stages. The Uppsala model is a common model which is categorized into the progressive model of internationalization. In this model, the internationalization is considered as a process of learning and attaining knowledge. According to this model, the major hurdle in the internationalization of the business organizations is the lack of knowledge of the local markets and how to operate internationally. A business organization tends to learn from its international activ ities and knowledge can be acquired in relation to the international market. Therefore, the relative hurdles in the internationalization procedure are reduced with the acquisition of knowledge (Cavusgil and Knoght, 2009). As per this model, the companies having considerable resources can jump one of these stages and achieve internationalization in a quicker pace. Therefore, the model suggests that there are some organizations which are born global and can attain access to the global markets without having considerable knowledge. Similarly, the knowledge acquisition of the foreign markets is not significant when the conditions in the foreign market are not stable. Also, if the foreign markets are similar to the local markets, the company can enter the market without passing through all these phases (Andersson and Holm 2010). The progressive or Uppsala internationalization model can be understood through the four stage, namely, intermittent export, export through independent representatives of the manufacturing company, foreign subsidiaries and manufacturing plants in the foreign markets. In the Uppsala progressive model, it is discussed that the companies obtain knowledge during the internationalization operations. This knowledge could be general or objective knowledge regarding the business environment or market-specific. The market-specific knowledge is obtained only from the operations in the foreign country whereas the information related to the business operations could be transferred from one country to another. The Uppsala model also states that the knowledge attained by a business organization relating to the market characteristics of a specific geographical location also influences its investment decisions (Frynas and Mellahi, 2015). If a business organization lacks knowledge regarding the inter national business operations, it will be reluctant it invests in it in long term. The companies having low knowledge encounter low risks in its business operations. The Uppsala model also elaborates that the companies select the target markets about which they have maximum knowledge. As most of the companies avoid risk and uncertainty, in the internationalization process they enter into the countries which are closest to them both psychologically and in geographical locations. Gaining knowledge of the foreign markets reduces the psychological distance between the countries and encourages the companies to enter into the foreign markets (Ciravegna, Fitzgerald and Kundu, 2013). Another model to explain the internationalization process is thee contingency model of internationalization. In this model, there are three influencing factors in the internationalization process, namely, reasons for internationalization, environment and mode of entry factor. These factors are also called REM factors. The reasons for entry encompass the motives and the aims of a business organization to venture into the international markets. The motives of the company can be categorized into proactive or reactive reasons. The proactive reasons include increasing profitability, technical competence, reducing the operations cost, seeking opportunity in the foreign markets and accessing resources. Contrastingly, the reactive reasons include increased pressure in the domestic markets, saturation or stagnation in the domestic markets, overproduction or utilization of the excessive capabilities, proximity to the foreign companies (Wilson, Hooley and Loveridge, 2016). In REM factors, the E factor denotes the business environment. It has been discussed previously that the companies prefer to operate in the familiar markets. The distance between the markets could be geographical or psychological. The psychological distance could be due to differences in the economic prosperity of the domestic and foreign market, language barriers, cultural barriers, and differences in the education level of the countries. The selection of the mode of entry in the internationalization process is dependent on several factors. The major factors that influence the mode of entry are cost, investment profile of the country, political stability, and control over the market, future benefits and the associated risks in the foreign markets. The growth of the company in the international market is dependent upon the environmental factors in the foreign country. In the internationalization process, the environmental factors are dynamic and constantly changing. Therefore, there is specific internat ionalization method of business organizations. According to the contingency model, the environmental factors of a foreign county are unique and constantly changing. A business organization must adapt itself and use its strengths to make favourable conditions in the foreign market. In this model, firstly, some conditions are specified then if those conditions are fulfilled they are followed by an action plan. The transaction cost model is based on this approach (Kaynak, 2014). The interactive model of internationalization posits that a business organization enters into the international markets when it forms long term relationships with the local actors. The relationships are formed by the continuous interaction between different actors. According to this model, business networks are formed when a number of commercial and personal relationships are developed between its members. According to this model, the major motivator for a company to expand its operations in international market is organization networks (Larimo and Vissak, 2009). The business organizations in the network are co-dependent on another and utilize the resources of each company for the benefits of both the parties. The needs and the capacities of the business organizations are mediated by the interactions in these relationships. In this model, the most critical factor in the internationalization of business organizations is the relative position of the business in the network. A business enterprise is assisted by its business network in internationalization by one of the following strategies, namely, extension, penetration and coordination. In the extension strategy, a company extends in the foreign markets wherein it has previously developed relationships and networks. In the penetration strategy, the company ventures into an international market to deepen its relationship with other companies in the local market. In the coordination, a business organization advances its existing relationships in different markets. According to this model, a multinational enterprise fall into one of the following category, namely, the early starter, the late starter, the lonely international and the international among others. The companies which do not have a business relationship with the foreign companies are defined as the early starters. These companies are forerunner and builds relationships with the companies in the foreign markets. The lonely international companies are the business organizations which has a limited amount of relationships with the companies in the foreign countries. However, the competitors and the customers of these companies are less internationalized. With internationalization, these companies deepen their existing relationships with the foreign countries. The late starters companies are the companies which remain locally focussed even when the other companies in the network are developing markets in the foreign countries. The late starters companies find difficulties in finding available partners in the foreign countries and establishing relationships with them. The international among others are the companies which uses their position to bridge the gap to other networks and foreign markets (Danciu, 2012). Conclusion Conclusively, it can be stated that in the present scenario, a large number of companies are pursuing the internationalization to expand their profitability and market share. The companies venture into the international markets by exports, joint ventures, strategic alliance, licensing or franchising. Among all these strategies, the export is the most common and popular strategy for international ventures as it requires less investment and has significantly less amount of risk. There are also several models that describe the process of internationalization in the business organizations. The Uppsala model is the most common model that states that internationalization is achieved by gaining knowledge of the foreign markets. Along with it, there are other models also such as contingency model and interactive model of internationalization. In the contingency model, some conditions are posited and when they are fulfilled, the company makes an action plan to venture into the foreign market. In the interactive model, internationalization is considered as a process of networking between different organizations. References Marinov, M. and Marinova, S. (2011). Internationalization of Emerging Economies and Firms. Berlon: Springer. IESE. (2015). How SMEs Can Internationalize. Forbes. [Online.] Available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/iese/2015/04/20/how-smes-can-internationalize/#202be3e6472d [Accessed on: 4 January, 2016]. Haak, R. (2003). Theory and Management of Collective Strategies in International Business: The Impact of Globalization on Japanese German Business Cooperations in Asia. Springer. Zou, S. and Kim, D. (2009). Export Marketing Strategy: Tactics and Skills That Work Business Expert Press digital library. Business Expert Press. Twarowska, K. and Kakol, M. (2013). International Business Strategy- Reasons And Forms Of Expansion Into Foreign Markets. Active Citizenship by Management, Knowledge Management Innovation Knowledge and Learning. International Conference. Danciu, V. (2012). Models For The Internationalization Of The Business: A Diversity based Approach. Management Marketing Challenges for the Knowledge Society7(1), 29-42. Cavusgil, S.T. and Knoght, G. (2009). Born Global Firms: A New International Enterprise. Business Expert Press. Andersson, U. and Holm U. (2010). Managing the Contemporary Multinational: The Role of Headquarters. Edward Elgar Publishing. Frynas, J.G. and Mellahi, K. (2015). Global Strategic Management. Oxford University Press. Ciravegna, L., Fitzgerald, R. and Kundu, S. (2013). Operating in Emerging Markets: A Guide to Management and Strategy in the New International Economy. FT Press. Wilson, D., Hooley, G. and Loveridge, R. (2016). Internationalisation: Process, Context and Markets. Springer. Kaynak, E. (2014). Internationalization of Companies from Developing Countries. Routledge. Dymitrowski, A. (2014). The Role of Innovations Created in the Internationalization Process for Company Performance. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN SA. Larimo, J. and Vissak, T. (2009). Research on Knowledge, Innovation and Internationalization. Emerald Group Publishing. Marinov, M. and Marinov, S. (2011). Internationalization of Emerging Economies and Firms. Springer. Ebner, H. (2011). Reasons for the Internationalisation Process of Companies. GRIN Verlag. Hewitt, I. (2005). Joint Ventures. Sweet Maxwell. Martnez-Fierro, S. (2006). Utilizing Information Technology in Developing Strategic Alliances Among Organizations. Idea Group Inc (IGI).

The Cosmic Engine Research Essay Example

The Cosmic Engine Research Essay Compare the views of Hubble and Friedman about the expansion of the universe: Edwin Hubble’s observation In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced that his observations of galaxies outside our own Milky Way showed that they were systematically moving away from us with a speed that was proportional to their distance from us. The more distant the galaxy, the faster it was receding from us. The universe was expanding after all, just as General Relativity originally predicted! Hubble observed that the light from a given galaxy was shifted further toward the red end of the light spectrum the further that galaxy was from our galaxy.The specific form of Hubbles expansion law is important: the speed of recession is proportional to distance. Hubble expressed this idea in an equation distance/time per megaparcec. A megaparcec is a really big distance (3. 26 million light-years). Alexander Friedman’s theory In the early 1920’s Friedman for told a theory were universe begins with a B ig Bang and continues expanding for untold billions of years (that’s the stage we’re in now. ) But after a long enough period of time, the mutual gravitational attraction of all the matter slows the expansion to a stop. The universe will eventually start to contract in a big crunch. Friedman embraced the idea that the equation in Einstein’s theory of relativity shows a universe that is in motion, and not constant.* A flow chart to show and describe the transformation of radiation into matter which followed the â€Å"big bang†: * Einstein’s view of the connection between matter and energy: Association between  mass  (m) and  energy (E) in Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity, complete by the formula E=  mc2, where  c  equals 300,000 km (186,000 miles) per second i. e. he  speed of light. In physical theories prior to that of  special relativity, mass and energy were seen as distinct entities. The energy of a body at rest cou ld be assigned an arbitrary value. In special relativity, the energy of a body at rest is determined to be  mc2. There for, each body of  rest mass  m  possesses  mc2  of â€Å"rest energy,† which potentially is available for conversion to other forms of energy. The mass-energy relation implies that if energy is released from the body as a result of such a conversion, then the rest mass of the body will decrease.Such a switch of rest energy to other forms of energy occurs in ordinary chemical reactions, but much larger conversions occur in  nuclear reactions. This is particularly true in the case of nuclear-fusion reactions that transform  hydrogen  to  helium, in which 0. 7 % of the original rest energy of the hydrogen is converted to other forms of energy. Although the  atomic bomb  proved that vast amounts of energy could be liberated from the  atom, it did not demonstrate the precision of Einstein’s equation. * Accretion of galaxies and st arsAfter a few hundred thousand years after the Big Bang, the Universe was cooled down and atoms were formed. As the Universe was further expanding and cooling, the atom particles lost kinetic energy and gravity began to attract them together forming regions of high mass density. The regions of high mass density began to attract nearby material and gain mass. This process is known as accretion. At some time or another, all matter in the universe formed discrete gas clouds known as protogalaxies. As further accretion occurred, galaxies were formed. Accretion also occurred inside galaxies, forming stars.As the average temperature of matter in the universe, then as the universe expands there is less hot matter such as stars and colder dark space/matter between it, so when you average things out, you get a lower temperature. * Relationship between the temperature of a star to the wavelength and color emitted from that star. Stars appear to be exclusively white at first glance. If we loo k carefully, we can see that there are a range of colors blue, white, red etc. stars are small blackbodies and their color variation is a direct consequence of their surface temperature.Cool stars radiate most of their energy in the red and infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum and there for appear red, while hot stars emit mostly at blue and ultra-violet wavelengths, making them appear blue or white. To estimate the surface temperature of a star, we can use the known relationship between the temperature of a blackbody and the wavelength of light where its spectrum peaks. That is, as you increase the temperature of a blackbody, the peak of its spectrum moves to shorter bluer wavelengths of light.This simple method is conceptually correct, but it cannot be used to obtain stellar temperatures accurately, because stars are  not perfect blackbodies. The presence of various elements in the stars atmosphere will cause certain wavelengths of light to be absorbed. Because these absorption lines are not uniformly distributed over the spectrum, they can alter the position of the spectral peak. Moreover, obtaining a usable spectrum of a star is a time-intensive process and is prohibitively inefficient for large samples of stars. Propose an experiment that can be conducted at home to find the mathematical relationship between brightness to its luminosity and distance. Shine a clear 100 Watt light bulb through a square hole in a piece of paper and see how many squares it illuminates on a piece of grid paper as you move the grid paper different distances away from the hole. Throughout the experiment, keep the light bulb and the piece of paper with the hole in it exactly 10 cm apart while you move the grid paper progressively farther away.The experiment works best if you turn the light bulb so that the shadow it casts through the hole is as sharp as possible this will usually be when the filament is held perpendicular to the paper. 1. Place the grid paper right a gainst the square hole, so it is also 10 cm from the light bulb. The bulb should illuminate one square on your grid paper. Now move the grid paper 20 cm from the bulb and see how many squares are illuminated. Repeat this measurement for distances of 30 cm and 40 cm from the bulb. 2.At each successive distance tested above, determine how many times farther away the grid paper was from the light bulb than it was at the first distance 10 cm. 3. Throughout this experiment, the amount of light passing through the square hole has remained constant since the distance between the light bulb and the hole has not changed. Thus, if the light is spread out over N squares, then only 1/N as much light falls on each individual square on the grid paper. Determine what fraction of the light coming through the square hole falls on any one square on the grid paper at each of the distances you examined. . Examine your data for trends and relationships. * Hertzsprung Russell diagram: Average mass (the s un = 1) Average luminosity (the sun = 1) * Main Sequence: A main sequence star is not really a type of star but a period in a stars life. When a star is in main sequence it is converting hydrogen into energy. It is then usually called a dwarf star. This is the longest period in a stars lifetime. Our Sun is a yellow dwarf in main sequence. A main sequence star’s mass ranges from 0. 10 M/M to 60 M/M the luminosity can start at 0. 008 L/L and reach 500,000 L/L. their surface temperature which is measured in kalvins can reach from 3000 K to 38,000 K. Once a protostar starts burning hydrogen in its core, it quickly passes through the T-Tauri stage (in a few million years) and becomes a main sequence star where its total mass determines all its structural properties. The three divisions in a stellar interior are the nuclear burning core, convective zone and radioactive zone. Energy, in the form of gamma-rays, is generated solely in the nuclear burning core.Energy is transferred tow ards the surface either in a radioactive manner or convection depending on which is more efficient at the temperatures, densities and opacities. Red Giants: Towards the end of a  star’s life, the temperature near the core rises and this causes the size of the star to expand. This is known to transform a main sequence star into a â€Å"Red Giant†. The average mass of a Red Giant is around 0. 4 to 0. 9 Betelgeuse is a red giant, it is 20 times bigger than the sun about 14,000 times brighter and its surface temperature is no more than 6,500 K.A stars evolution after the red giant phase depends on its mass. For stars greater than 1 solar mass, but less than 2 solar masses, the hydrogen burning shell eats its way outward leaving behind more helium ash. As the helium piles up, the core becomes more massive and contracts. The contraction heats the core as it becomes more dense. * White Dwarfs: Stars that have a lot of mass may end their lives as black holes neutron stars. A low or medium mass star, with a mass less than about 8 times the mass of our Sun will become a white dwarf.A typical white dwarf is about as massive as the Sun, yet only slightly bigger than the Earth. This makes white dwarfs one of the densest forms of matter, surpassed only by neutron stars and black holes. The average mass of a White Dwarf ranges from 1. 1 to 1. 7, the luminosity ranges from 1. 2 to 6. White dwarfs are quite common, being found in binary systems and in  clusters. Since they are remnants of stars born in the past, their numbers build up in the Galaxy over time. It is only because they are so faint that we fail to detect any except for the very closest ones. * Neutron star:A neutron star is a very small, super-dense star which is composed mostly of tightly-packed  neutrons. It has a thin atmosphere of  hydrogen. It has a diameter of about 5-10 miles (5-16 km) and a density of roughly 10  15  gm/cm3. Its mass is between 1 and 2 solar masses. * Proton â⠂¬â€œ Proton Cycle   and carbon cycle Proton-proton cycle,  also called  Proton-proton Reaction,  chain of  reactions that is the chief source of the energy radiated by the  Sun  and other cool main-sequence  stars. Another sequence of thermonuclear reactions, called the carbon cycle, provides much of the energy released by hotter stars.In a proton-proton cycle, four  hydrogen  nuclei (protons) are combined to form one  helium  nucleus; 0. 7 percent of the original mass is lost mainly by conversion into  heat energy, but some energy escapes in the form of  neutrinos  (? ). First, two hydrogen nuclei (1H) combine to form a hydrogen-2 nucleus (2H, deuterium) with the emission of a  positive electron  (e+, positron) and a neutrino (? ). The hydrogen-2 nucleus then rapidly captures another proton to form a helium-3 nucleus (3He), while emitting a  gamma ray  (? ). In symbols:

The Cosmic Engine Research Essay Example

The Cosmic Engine Research Essay Compare the views of Hubble and Friedman about the expansion of the universe: Edwin Hubble’s observation In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced that his observations of galaxies outside our own Milky Way showed that they were systematically moving away from us with a speed that was proportional to their distance from us. The more distant the galaxy, the faster it was receding from us. The universe was expanding after all, just as General Relativity originally predicted! Hubble observed that the light from a given galaxy was shifted further toward the red end of the light spectrum the further that galaxy was from our galaxy.The specific form of Hubbles expansion law is important: the speed of recession is proportional to distance. Hubble expressed this idea in an equation distance/time per megaparcec. A megaparcec is a really big distance (3. 26 million light-years). Alexander Friedman’s theory In the early 1920’s Friedman for told a theory were universe begins with a B ig Bang and continues expanding for untold billions of years (that’s the stage we’re in now. ) But after a long enough period of time, the mutual gravitational attraction of all the matter slows the expansion to a stop. The universe will eventually start to contract in a big crunch. Friedman embraced the idea that the equation in Einstein’s theory of relativity shows a universe that is in motion, and not constant.* A flow chart to show and describe the transformation of radiation into matter which followed the â€Å"big bang†: * Einstein’s view of the connection between matter and energy: Association between  mass  (m) and  energy (E) in Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity, complete by the formula E=  mc2, where  c  equals 300,000 km (186,000 miles) per second i. e. he  speed of light. In physical theories prior to that of  special relativity, mass and energy were seen as distinct entities. The energy of a body at rest cou ld be assigned an arbitrary value. In special relativity, the energy of a body at rest is determined to be  mc2. There for, each body of  rest mass  m  possesses  mc2  of â€Å"rest energy,† which potentially is available for conversion to other forms of energy. The mass-energy relation implies that if energy is released from the body as a result of such a conversion, then the rest mass of the body will decrease.Such a switch of rest energy to other forms of energy occurs in ordinary chemical reactions, but much larger conversions occur in  nuclear reactions. This is particularly true in the case of nuclear-fusion reactions that transform  hydrogen  to  helium, in which 0. 7 % of the original rest energy of the hydrogen is converted to other forms of energy. Although the  atomic bomb  proved that vast amounts of energy could be liberated from the  atom, it did not demonstrate the precision of Einstein’s equation. * Accretion of galaxies and st arsAfter a few hundred thousand years after the Big Bang, the Universe was cooled down and atoms were formed. As the Universe was further expanding and cooling, the atom particles lost kinetic energy and gravity began to attract them together forming regions of high mass density. The regions of high mass density began to attract nearby material and gain mass. This process is known as accretion. At some time or another, all matter in the universe formed discrete gas clouds known as protogalaxies. As further accretion occurred, galaxies were formed. Accretion also occurred inside galaxies, forming stars.As the average temperature of matter in the universe, then as the universe expands there is less hot matter such as stars and colder dark space/matter between it, so when you average things out, you get a lower temperature. * Relationship between the temperature of a star to the wavelength and color emitted from that star. Stars appear to be exclusively white at first glance. If we loo k carefully, we can see that there are a range of colors blue, white, red etc. stars are small blackbodies and their color variation is a direct consequence of their surface temperature.Cool stars radiate most of their energy in the red and infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum and there for appear red, while hot stars emit mostly at blue and ultra-violet wavelengths, making them appear blue or white. To estimate the surface temperature of a star, we can use the known relationship between the temperature of a blackbody and the wavelength of light where its spectrum peaks. That is, as you increase the temperature of a blackbody, the peak of its spectrum moves to shorter bluer wavelengths of light.This simple method is conceptually correct, but it cannot be used to obtain stellar temperatures accurately, because stars are  not perfect blackbodies. The presence of various elements in the stars atmosphere will cause certain wavelengths of light to be absorbed. Because these absorption lines are not uniformly distributed over the spectrum, they can alter the position of the spectral peak. Moreover, obtaining a usable spectrum of a star is a time-intensive process and is prohibitively inefficient for large samples of stars. Propose an experiment that can be conducted at home to find the mathematical relationship between brightness to its luminosity and distance. Shine a clear 100 Watt light bulb through a square hole in a piece of paper and see how many squares it illuminates on a piece of grid paper as you move the grid paper different distances away from the hole. Throughout the experiment, keep the light bulb and the piece of paper with the hole in it exactly 10 cm apart while you move the grid paper progressively farther away.The experiment works best if you turn the light bulb so that the shadow it casts through the hole is as sharp as possible this will usually be when the filament is held perpendicular to the paper. 1. Place the grid paper right a gainst the square hole, so it is also 10 cm from the light bulb. The bulb should illuminate one square on your grid paper. Now move the grid paper 20 cm from the bulb and see how many squares are illuminated. Repeat this measurement for distances of 30 cm and 40 cm from the bulb. 2.At each successive distance tested above, determine how many times farther away the grid paper was from the light bulb than it was at the first distance 10 cm. 3. Throughout this experiment, the amount of light passing through the square hole has remained constant since the distance between the light bulb and the hole has not changed. Thus, if the light is spread out over N squares, then only 1/N as much light falls on each individual square on the grid paper. Determine what fraction of the light coming through the square hole falls on any one square on the grid paper at each of the distances you examined. . Examine your data for trends and relationships. * Hertzsprung Russell diagram: Average mass (the s un = 1) Average luminosity (the sun = 1) * Main Sequence: A main sequence star is not really a type of star but a period in a stars life. When a star is in main sequence it is converting hydrogen into energy. It is then usually called a dwarf star. This is the longest period in a stars lifetime. Our Sun is a yellow dwarf in main sequence. A main sequence star’s mass ranges from 0. 10 M/M to 60 M/M the luminosity can start at 0. 008 L/L and reach 500,000 L/L. their surface temperature which is measured in kalvins can reach from 3000 K to 38,000 K. Once a protostar starts burning hydrogen in its core, it quickly passes through the T-Tauri stage (in a few million years) and becomes a main sequence star where its total mass determines all its structural properties. The three divisions in a stellar interior are the nuclear burning core, convective zone and radioactive zone. Energy, in the form of gamma-rays, is generated solely in the nuclear burning core.Energy is transferred tow ards the surface either in a radioactive manner or convection depending on which is more efficient at the temperatures, densities and opacities. Red Giants: Towards the end of a  star’s life, the temperature near the core rises and this causes the size of the star to expand. This is known to transform a main sequence star into a â€Å"Red Giant†. The average mass of a Red Giant is around 0. 4 to 0. 9 Betelgeuse is a red giant, it is 20 times bigger than the sun about 14,000 times brighter and its surface temperature is no more than 6,500 K.A stars evolution after the red giant phase depends on its mass. For stars greater than 1 solar mass, but less than 2 solar masses, the hydrogen burning shell eats its way outward leaving behind more helium ash. As the helium piles up, the core becomes more massive and contracts. The contraction heats the core as it becomes more dense. * White Dwarfs: Stars that have a lot of mass may end their lives as black holes neutron stars. A low or medium mass star, with a mass less than about 8 times the mass of our Sun will become a white dwarf.A typical white dwarf is about as massive as the Sun, yet only slightly bigger than the Earth. This makes white dwarfs one of the densest forms of matter, surpassed only by neutron stars and black holes. The average mass of a White Dwarf ranges from 1. 1 to 1. 7, the luminosity ranges from 1. 2 to 6. White dwarfs are quite common, being found in binary systems and in  clusters. Since they are remnants of stars born in the past, their numbers build up in the Galaxy over time. It is only because they are so faint that we fail to detect any except for the very closest ones. * Neutron star:A neutron star is a very small, super-dense star which is composed mostly of tightly-packed  neutrons. It has a thin atmosphere of  hydrogen. It has a diameter of about 5-10 miles (5-16 km) and a density of roughly 10  15  gm/cm3. Its mass is between 1 and 2 solar masses. * Proton â⠂¬â€œ Proton Cycle   and carbon cycle Proton-proton cycle,  also called  Proton-proton Reaction,  chain of  reactions that is the chief source of the energy radiated by the  Sun  and other cool main-sequence  stars. Another sequence of thermonuclear reactions, called the carbon cycle, provides much of the energy released by hotter stars.In a proton-proton cycle, four  hydrogen  nuclei (protons) are combined to form one  helium  nucleus; 0. 7 percent of the original mass is lost mainly by conversion into  heat energy, but some energy escapes in the form of  neutrinos  (? ). First, two hydrogen nuclei (1H) combine to form a hydrogen-2 nucleus (2H, deuterium) with the emission of a  positive electron  (e+, positron) and a neutrino (? ). The hydrogen-2 nucleus then rapidly captures another proton to form a helium-3 nucleus (3He), while emitting a  gamma ray  (? ). In symbols: