Performance Enhancing Drugs Essay - 1759 Words

Performance Enhancing Drugs When most people think of performance-enhancing drugs the first thought that comes to their minds is the illegal ones like steroids, but today there are more non-illegal drugs like creatine and androstenedione for people today. Creatine is a chemical produced by the kidney and found in meat product. It helps muscles recover after a workout, which in turn helps athletes bulk up faster (Gregorian 5). Creatine is used by many of the nations top college sports teams like Nebraska and Northwestern. The ?Husker Power? strength program uses creatine, where it is meticulously measured and poured to the contours of the designated athlete (Gregorian 1). It is also slurped and scarified down by 25% if of pro†¦show more content†¦So performance-enhancing drugs should not be used because they give the person using them an unfair advantage, has a high monetary cost to keep getting the drugs, and has many negative side effects. Not everyone believes that performance-enhancing drugs should be banned. NU football players Jay Tant and Dwayne Missouri both put on about 30 pounds of muscle during their careers due to creatine and countless hours in the weight room (Carlton 1). ?Creatine helps weightlifters and runners squeeze in an extra rep or stair climbs.? It translates into an average gain of 20- 30 pounds o of muscle in just a few months (Schrof 2). That is the good side of the enhancers. While supporters of performance enhancing drugs have many valid arguments, better evidence supports that they should not be used. The first argument is the person using them has an unfair advantage. Columnist Michael Bamburger for Sports Illustrated wrote that athletes seem to rely more then ever on banned performance enhancers (1). Then just talent, and pure blood, sweat, and tears. Mark Asanovich the strength and conditioning coach for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers discourages the use of any performance enhancers and say?s,Show MoreRelatedPerformance Enhancing Drugs. . Performance-Enhancing Drugs1580 Words   |  7 PagesPerformance Enhancing Drugs Performance-enhancing drugs (PED s) have been an issue for many decades now for the medical and sports field. Olympic and professional athletes have been using them to gain an upper hand on the competition, but some may ask if it s really worth it? Studies show that performance-enhancing drugs have been proven to negatively affect the health of athletes who take them. Simply put, performance-enhancing drugs could either improve athletic performance or can be extremelyRead MorePerformance Enhancing Drugs For Sports1227 Words   |  5 PagesPerformance Enhancing Drugs Sport records are becoming harder   to break and seeing records are starting to become a thing of the past.. Players aren’t being able to hit these home runs or score long touchdown’s. Injured   players are getting kicked off the team or even quit because they can’t get to their peak performance that they were at before they got injured.   If more players were to use performance enhancing drugs they would be able to compete to the performance of past players. A performanceRead MoreThe Prohibition Of Performance Enhancing Drugs1257 Words   |  6 PagesContinue the Prohibition of Performance Enhancing Drugs Sporting competitions either nationally or internationally have regulations to prohibit or inhibit the use of performance enhancing drugs (PED’s). There been a case for the lifting of these regulations to create sporting fair across all types of people. Craig Fry, an advocate for the use of performance enhancing drugs in elite sporting competitions and author of â€Å"Bring Truth into Play by Saying Yes to Drugs in Sport†, is an Australian healthRead Moreâ€Å"Performance-Enhancing Drugs in the Workplace† Essay1392 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"Performance-Enhancing Drugs in the Workplace† Performance-enhancers are becoming more common in our everyday life, despite our efforts to ban them. This raises the questions, should we just accept these drugs and use them to our advantage? Or should we continue to resist these drugs and not take advantage of their performance-enhancing capabilities? When you start talking about organizations like the military, where Soldiers are ask to go beyond the normal physical and mental stress of a regularRead MorePerformance Enhancing Drugs For Professional Sports1703 Words   |  7 Pagesthe use of performance enhancing drugs. The debate on whether or not performance enhancing substances should be allowed in professional sports has been going on for years, decades even. Many believe that using steroids and other performance enhancers should automatically disqualify an athlete from ever being able to be a member of the Hall of Fame, in sports in general, not just in Major League Baseball. However, there is an argument to be made to make the use of performance enhancing drugs legal inRead MoreThe Ethical Dilemma Of Performance Enhancing Drugs1364 Words   |  6 Pagesway. In this paper, the ethical dilemma of performance enhancing drugs being used in sports will be addressed and be given solution based on the Christian worldview. Ethical Dilemma This case involves Paul, who is a promising young athlete, who works hard and has a good spot on his team. He is constantly putting in training to get better and it has been paying off. He notices that some of his teammates have been trying out a new performance enhancing drug. It is not illegal, but it still improvesRead MoreSports and Performance Enhancing Drugs Essay1221 Words   |  5 PagesPerformance enhancing drugs in todays pro sports have become a big deal, because of health stimulants and the benefits that such studies have on good development of the person and on fair athletic games. Pediatricians or trainers can play a huge role in helping the athlete or player that is using or taking performance enhancing drugs. By taking factual info about the true benefits and medical problems of these drugs and giving information about healthy food and working out. Tries to create a changeRead MorePerformance Enhancing Drugs Should Be Banned1645 Words   |  7 Pagesrules by using performance enhancing drugs each year. Performance enhancing drugs help athletes to becomes bigger, faster, and overall better at their individual sport. This process is called doping. Doping can be defined as using drugs and various substances to better perform at a particular task. Furthermore, these athletes act in the moment and fail to see all aspects of these performance enhancing drugs. Contradictorily, some individuals argue that performance enhancing drugs should in fact beRead MoreEthical Dilemmas : Performance Enhancing Drugs1674 Words   |  7 PagesEthical Dilemmas: Performance Enhancing Drugs Today’s society places high-performance athletes on a pedestal and our youth look to become the next superstar. The question plaguing young athletes is â€Å"how can I get there?†. Physical development must be considered for any athlete and this consequently introduces the topic of performance enhancing drugs. These substances can cause physical development to occur faster than the natural rate, making the athlete a step above â€Å"the rest†. Ethical, moralRead MorePerformance Enhancing Drugs Should Be Allowed2071 Words   |  9 Pagesis whether performance enhancing drugs should be allowed. According to the free dictionary, performance enhancing drugs is defined as â€Å"Any drug used to gain an advantage in sports. Such drugs may improve endurance or strength or accelerate healing after injury†. Performance enhancing drugs was first acknowledged as a problem in professional sports in 1967 when the international Olympic committee created a medical b oard due to the heightened use. Today there are seven types of performance enhancers

Embracing Inclusion Addressing The Needs Of Children...

Embracing Inclusion – Addressing the Needs of Children with Differences in Education Kissy Marie Rose Seattle University Abstract This paper discusses the prevalent issues, tensions and biases of the inclusive classroom in today’s educational setting. The major issues explored are: Cost, Benefits, Effectiveness and Controversy. In addition, two personal interviews are taken into account from parents with children within the educational system and their thoughts, hopes, dreams, and grievances and their day-to-day accounts of successes and challenges. What’s important to note is like many parents, the parents interviewed, have hopes for their children that transcends and surpasses any normality, after all they have to think†¦show more content†¦Now it is crucial that all of teachers ensure inclusive practice for all students in their classroom and the wider school. Under the inclusion model, students with special needs spend most or all of their time with non-disabled students. Implementation of inclusion practice varies and schools most frequently use the strategy for select students w ith mild to severe special needs.† (2000 Allen, K.E.) The most important part of Allen’s quote that applies today, â€Å"Now it is crucial that all teachers ensure inclusive practice for all students in their classroom and the wider school† has become a true paradox. It is now a rallying cry, be it from the controversial challenges, the federal/state requirements or the lofty goal of superintendent, administrator or educator. What is now clear based on the current laws, such as the Americans with Disability Act (ADA), Disability Education Act (IDEA), Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE), and published guidelines, is that Inclusion is for everyone, not just disabled children. â€Å"Special Needs† is now inclusive of children with communication disorders, emotional behavioral disorders, developmental disorders, disabilities, and gifted or talented children as well. The (4) four major issues involved are: Cost, Benefits, Effectiveness and the one that must be considered both separately and inclusively, the issue of Controversy. So let’s take a closer look at each.

Means of Internationalization Foreign Markets

Question: Discuss about theMeans of Internationalizationfor Foreign Markets. Answer: Introduction The internationalization is the process of increasing the association of business entities with the foreign markets. The international business has existed for thousands of years with exports and imports of the local products. However, in the past several business enterprises have opted to enter into other countries to expand their market, compensating the local market decline, reducing operational and distribution costs and distributing risks. It has increased the number of multinational firms across the globe and these firms contribute significantly to the local economy and provide employment to the people. Previously, internationalization was considered as a phenomenon of the Western enterprises and the companies originating from the triad of the USA, Europe and Japan expanding their business in the international markets (IESE, 2015). However, the contemporary multinational firms are originating from China, India, South Korea, Brazil and Russia. It shows the transformation in the current business scenario. There are several theoretical paradigms used to explain the internationalization of the firms. In the resource-based view, the companies elect the internationalization strategy as they have numerous resources awarded by their home economy. The companies use the internationalization strategy to get better opportunities and create competitive advantages for themselves. These resources can be intangible or tangible and may have a time window. Sometimes, these resources may prove disadvantageous for the business organization. These disadvantages can be associated with the country or the firm wherein the business enterprise is operating. The companies may expand to overcome these disadvantages and gain competitive advantage through the acquisition of the new assets. The business organizations try hard to attain benef icial resources as they are hard to replace (Marinov and Marinova, 2011). In this essence, in this paper, the various means of internationalization selected by the business organizations is discussed. Along with it, the internationalization models are also described in the paper. Reasons for Internationalization The most common type of internationalization trade strategies are exporting, importing and countertrade. A business organization usually prefers internationalization by exports as it is the most common strategy for expanding into the foreign markets. It is important for business organizations to select the internationalization strategy according to their business model and the basic motivation for internationalization. The motivation of the employees can be classified in two categories, namely, reactive and proactive. The reactive motivation occurs when the company follows its major customers or clients in the international markets. In contrast to it, the companies pursuing high growth markets in the foreign countries are motivated by proactive reasons. Other than that, a company may pursue internationalization to enhance its knowledge and learning. Although there are diverse motivations for the internationalization of the firms, the fundamental behind all is the growth of the compan y. The internationalization of a business organization begins with the recruitment of personnel, experienced in international markets or recruiting international employees. Along with it, an internationalization strategy is selected to pursue the foreign market goals. The technological advancements have also contributed to the internationalization of the business as the companies can communicate easily with the global clients (Marinov and Marinov, 2011). The business organizations can manage the foreign subsidiaries easily by using the air travel and email networks. A number of companies pursue internationalization strategies to reduce their budget. Today, a large number of business enterprises outsource their business from the countries with a relatively low cost of living and expenditure. It reduces their overhead cost and increase profits. Other than that, by going global the companies may reduce their dependency on the local markets and can safeguard themselves from the fluctuations in the local market. For instance, the sudden decrease in the demand of the customers or increase in the market share due to arrival of competitors negatively impacts a firms business. A company can protect itself from the negative impact by venturing into the international markets. A greater market for the company means large profits. Moreover, the multinational business organizations also adapt their products and services to suit the local culture t o achieve market penetration. Sometimes, the companies also focus on entering into the under-developed market to gain market share (Ebner, 2011). Internationalization Strategies The selection of the foreign market entry strategy is dependent upon the associated risk, control and the requirement of the resources. Moreover, different market entry strategy promises different returns on the financial investments. The market entry mode is differentiated in two modes, namely, non-equity mode and equity mode. In the non-equity mode, the companies use the strategy of export and contractual agreements. In the non-equity mode, the companies use the strategy of joint ventures and wholly owned subsidiary. The market entry strategy of export provides lowest level of risk and least market control. In contrast to it, the market entry strategy providing highest market control and expected return on investment are associated with acquisitions and Greenfield investments. As discussed above, exporting is a popular foreign market entry due to limited risks, expenses and requirement of little knowledge of the foreign markets. In this strategy, the companies conduct al the production and the manufacturing in the local country and deliver it to the customers in the foreign market (Zou and Kim, 2009). The company can conduct its marketing, distribution and customer service activities in the foreign market itself or contract with an independent distributor for it. The strategy is preferred by the small and medium enterprises and first time entrants to the foreign markets. Exporting is a very flexible strategy to enter into the foreign markets. Compared to other strategies, in export the companies can easily withdraw from the foreign markets in case of low profits. The expenses and the risks associated with internationalization are very low (Haak, 2003). There are two types of exporting, namely, direct exporting and indirect exporting. In the direct exportin g the business enterprise becomes directly involved in the marketing and advertising of the products. Contrary to it, in thee indirect exporting, the companies do not get involved in the marketing and distribution of the international products. Licensing in another foreign market entry strategy characterized with limited degree of risk. As per this strategy, the firms give license to the patents, trademarks and copyrights. Additionally, the firms also share knowledge regarding the business processes and the products. The licensor returns the investment by paying specific licensing fees. Several business organizations use this method as it promotes their products in the foreign territories. It is a common method adopted by the public authorities as it brings new skills and knowledge in their place (Twarowska and Kakol, 2013). Franchising is also a similar concept to licensing. However, in this method, the business organizations are more directly involved in development and control of the promotion and advertising of the products. In this method, the franchisees pay specific fees and royalty to the franchiser to obtain the trademark of the company. The franchisee is a semi-independent business organization which is supported by the parent company in terms of technology and finances. The franchisee uses the trademark along with the business format and the technology. In comparison to the licensing, franchising builds a long-term relationship with the local organization. The set of resources and the rights provided by the organization are also broad in range, such as the franchisor provides equipments, training and finances. However, in franchising, the parent company is liable to provide knowledge of the business processes and necessary resources whereas in licensing, the agreement is made upon the intellec tual property and trade secrets. There are several benefits of franchising mode of operations such as low political interference, low cost, option to simultaneously expand in different regions of the world and choice to select the partner according to their financial and managerial capability. However, several times, the franchisee may develop into the future competitors. Along with it, a wrong franchisee can tarnish the reputation of the parent company. When compared to the internationalization strategies of licensing and exporting, it requires heavy financial investment to manage the subsidiaries in the foreign companies. A large number of business organizations prefer joint ventures due to their huge financial investments. It has several common characteristics with licensing. The companies utilizing joint ventures to enter into the foreign markets partake in management decisions ad hold a substantial amount of equity. The companies form a partnership which is called joint venture. In the joint ventures, the companies hold a substantial control over the local subsidiaries, its operations and provide the company with adequate local market knowledge. The parent organization can access the relationship network of the local company and expand its knowledge. Moreover, the firms are exposed to limited risk due to partnerships with the local companies. It is quite popular foreign market entry strategy as it avoids the control problems associated with other types of international ventures and the firm can acquire the local market knowledge from the local firm (Hewitt, 2005). Another strategy to venture into the foreign market is creating strategic alliance. A strategic alliance encompasses various modes of international ventures, such as joint venture, shared venture or minority equity participation. The common characteristics of all these strategic alliance are they are developed in highly industrialized nations, they emphasis on product development and research rather than distributing them and the time duration for the strategic alliance is small in comparison to other joint ventures. One of the primary intents of the strategic alliance is the exchange of the technology for the research and development. The companies prefer creating strategic alliance for the research and innovation as there is hardly any firm possesses all the necessary resources to foster innovation. Moreover, the short product lifecycle and increases competition forces the company to remain competitive in the marketplace (Martnez-Fierro, 2006). Models for Internationalization of Business The internationalization of a business organization is characterized by excessive diversity and its systematization. Therefore, the systematic internationalization of a business organization can be described through several models of internationalization. All the models of internationalization can be classified in three categories, namely, progressive, contingency and interactive model. The progressive model considers internationalization as a progressive process wherein a firm attains internationalization through several stages. The Uppsala model is a common model which is categorized into the progressive model of internationalization. In this model, the internationalization is considered as a process of learning and attaining knowledge. According to this model, the major hurdle in the internationalization of the business organizations is the lack of knowledge of the local markets and how to operate internationally. A business organization tends to learn from its international activ ities and knowledge can be acquired in relation to the international market. Therefore, the relative hurdles in the internationalization procedure are reduced with the acquisition of knowledge (Cavusgil and Knoght, 2009). As per this model, the companies having considerable resources can jump one of these stages and achieve internationalization in a quicker pace. Therefore, the model suggests that there are some organizations which are born global and can attain access to the global markets without having considerable knowledge. Similarly, the knowledge acquisition of the foreign markets is not significant when the conditions in the foreign market are not stable. Also, if the foreign markets are similar to the local markets, the company can enter the market without passing through all these phases (Andersson and Holm 2010). The progressive or Uppsala internationalization model can be understood through the four stage, namely, intermittent export, export through independent representatives of the manufacturing company, foreign subsidiaries and manufacturing plants in the foreign markets. In the Uppsala progressive model, it is discussed that the companies obtain knowledge during the internationalization operations. This knowledge could be general or objective knowledge regarding the business environment or market-specific. The market-specific knowledge is obtained only from the operations in the foreign country whereas the information related to the business operations could be transferred from one country to another. The Uppsala model also states that the knowledge attained by a business organization relating to the market characteristics of a specific geographical location also influences its investment decisions (Frynas and Mellahi, 2015). If a business organization lacks knowledge regarding the inter national business operations, it will be reluctant it invests in it in long term. The companies having low knowledge encounter low risks in its business operations. The Uppsala model also elaborates that the companies select the target markets about which they have maximum knowledge. As most of the companies avoid risk and uncertainty, in the internationalization process they enter into the countries which are closest to them both psychologically and in geographical locations. Gaining knowledge of the foreign markets reduces the psychological distance between the countries and encourages the companies to enter into the foreign markets (Ciravegna, Fitzgerald and Kundu, 2013). Another model to explain the internationalization process is thee contingency model of internationalization. In this model, there are three influencing factors in the internationalization process, namely, reasons for internationalization, environment and mode of entry factor. These factors are also called REM factors. The reasons for entry encompass the motives and the aims of a business organization to venture into the international markets. The motives of the company can be categorized into proactive or reactive reasons. The proactive reasons include increasing profitability, technical competence, reducing the operations cost, seeking opportunity in the foreign markets and accessing resources. Contrastingly, the reactive reasons include increased pressure in the domestic markets, saturation or stagnation in the domestic markets, overproduction or utilization of the excessive capabilities, proximity to the foreign companies (Wilson, Hooley and Loveridge, 2016). In REM factors, the E factor denotes the business environment. It has been discussed previously that the companies prefer to operate in the familiar markets. The distance between the markets could be geographical or psychological. The psychological distance could be due to differences in the economic prosperity of the domestic and foreign market, language barriers, cultural barriers, and differences in the education level of the countries. The selection of the mode of entry in the internationalization process is dependent on several factors. The major factors that influence the mode of entry are cost, investment profile of the country, political stability, and control over the market, future benefits and the associated risks in the foreign markets. The growth of the company in the international market is dependent upon the environmental factors in the foreign country. In the internationalization process, the environmental factors are dynamic and constantly changing. Therefore, there is specific internat ionalization method of business organizations. According to the contingency model, the environmental factors of a foreign county are unique and constantly changing. A business organization must adapt itself and use its strengths to make favourable conditions in the foreign market. In this model, firstly, some conditions are specified then if those conditions are fulfilled they are followed by an action plan. The transaction cost model is based on this approach (Kaynak, 2014). The interactive model of internationalization posits that a business organization enters into the international markets when it forms long term relationships with the local actors. The relationships are formed by the continuous interaction between different actors. According to this model, business networks are formed when a number of commercial and personal relationships are developed between its members. According to this model, the major motivator for a company to expand its operations in international market is organization networks (Larimo and Vissak, 2009). The business organizations in the network are co-dependent on another and utilize the resources of each company for the benefits of both the parties. The needs and the capacities of the business organizations are mediated by the interactions in these relationships. In this model, the most critical factor in the internationalization of business organizations is the relative position of the business in the network. A business enterprise is assisted by its business network in internationalization by one of the following strategies, namely, extension, penetration and coordination. In the extension strategy, a company extends in the foreign markets wherein it has previously developed relationships and networks. In the penetration strategy, the company ventures into an international market to deepen its relationship with other companies in the local market. In the coordination, a business organization advances its existing relationships in different markets. According to this model, a multinational enterprise fall into one of the following category, namely, the early starter, the late starter, the lonely international and the international among others. The companies which do not have a business relationship with the foreign companies are defined as the early starters. These companies are forerunner and builds relationships with the companies in the foreign markets. The lonely international companies are the business organizations which has a limited amount of relationships with the companies in the foreign countries. However, the competitors and the customers of these companies are less internationalized. With internationalization, these companies deepen their existing relationships with the foreign countries. The late starters companies are the companies which remain locally focussed even when the other companies in the network are developing markets in the foreign countries. The late starters companies find difficulties in finding available partners in the foreign countries and establishing relationships with them. The international among others are the companies which uses their position to bridge the gap to other networks and foreign markets (Danciu, 2012). Conclusion Conclusively, it can be stated that in the present scenario, a large number of companies are pursuing the internationalization to expand their profitability and market share. The companies venture into the international markets by exports, joint ventures, strategic alliance, licensing or franchising. Among all these strategies, the export is the most common and popular strategy for international ventures as it requires less investment and has significantly less amount of risk. There are also several models that describe the process of internationalization in the business organizations. The Uppsala model is the most common model that states that internationalization is achieved by gaining knowledge of the foreign markets. Along with it, there are other models also such as contingency model and interactive model of internationalization. In the contingency model, some conditions are posited and when they are fulfilled, the company makes an action plan to venture into the foreign market. In the interactive model, internationalization is considered as a process of networking between different organizations. References Marinov, M. and Marinova, S. (2011). Internationalization of Emerging Economies and Firms. Berlon: Springer. IESE. (2015). How SMEs Can Internationalize. Forbes. [Online.] Available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/iese/2015/04/20/how-smes-can-internationalize/#202be3e6472d [Accessed on: 4 January, 2016]. Haak, R. (2003). Theory and Management of Collective Strategies in International Business: The Impact of Globalization on Japanese German Business Cooperations in Asia. Springer. Zou, S. and Kim, D. (2009). Export Marketing Strategy: Tactics and Skills That Work Business Expert Press digital library. Business Expert Press. Twarowska, K. and Kakol, M. (2013). International Business Strategy- Reasons And Forms Of Expansion Into Foreign Markets. Active Citizenship by Management, Knowledge Management Innovation Knowledge and Learning. International Conference. Danciu, V. (2012). Models For The Internationalization Of The Business: A Diversity based Approach. Management Marketing Challenges for the Knowledge Society7(1), 29-42. Cavusgil, S.T. and Knoght, G. (2009). Born Global Firms: A New International Enterprise. Business Expert Press. Andersson, U. and Holm U. (2010). Managing the Contemporary Multinational: The Role of Headquarters. Edward Elgar Publishing. Frynas, J.G. and Mellahi, K. (2015). Global Strategic Management. Oxford University Press. Ciravegna, L., Fitzgerald, R. and Kundu, S. (2013). Operating in Emerging Markets: A Guide to Management and Strategy in the New International Economy. FT Press. Wilson, D., Hooley, G. and Loveridge, R. (2016). Internationalisation: Process, Context and Markets. Springer. Kaynak, E. (2014). Internationalization of Companies from Developing Countries. Routledge. Dymitrowski, A. (2014). The Role of Innovations Created in the Internationalization Process for Company Performance. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN SA. Larimo, J. and Vissak, T. (2009). Research on Knowledge, Innovation and Internationalization. Emerald Group Publishing. Marinov, M. and Marinov, S. (2011). Internationalization of Emerging Economies and Firms. Springer. Ebner, H. (2011). Reasons for the Internationalisation Process of Companies. GRIN Verlag. Hewitt, I. (2005). Joint Ventures. Sweet Maxwell. Martnez-Fierro, S. (2006). Utilizing Information Technology in Developing Strategic Alliances Among Organizations. Idea Group Inc (IGI).

The Cosmic Engine Research Essay Example

The Cosmic Engine Research Essay Compare the views of Hubble and Friedman about the expansion of the universe: Edwin Hubble’s observation In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced that his observations of galaxies outside our own Milky Way showed that they were systematically moving away from us with a speed that was proportional to their distance from us. The more distant the galaxy, the faster it was receding from us. The universe was expanding after all, just as General Relativity originally predicted! Hubble observed that the light from a given galaxy was shifted further toward the red end of the light spectrum the further that galaxy was from our galaxy.The specific form of Hubbles expansion law is important: the speed of recession is proportional to distance. Hubble expressed this idea in an equation distance/time per megaparcec. A megaparcec is a really big distance (3. 26 million light-years). Alexander Friedman’s theory In the early 1920’s Friedman for told a theory were universe begins with a B ig Bang and continues expanding for untold billions of years (that’s the stage we’re in now. ) But after a long enough period of time, the mutual gravitational attraction of all the matter slows the expansion to a stop. The universe will eventually start to contract in a big crunch. Friedman embraced the idea that the equation in Einstein’s theory of relativity shows a universe that is in motion, and not constant.* A flow chart to show and describe the transformation of radiation into matter which followed the â€Å"big bang†: * Einstein’s view of the connection between matter and energy: Association between  mass  (m) and  energy (E) in Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity, complete by the formula E=  mc2, where  c  equals 300,000 km (186,000 miles) per second i. e. he  speed of light. In physical theories prior to that of  special relativity, mass and energy were seen as distinct entities. The energy of a body at rest cou ld be assigned an arbitrary value. In special relativity, the energy of a body at rest is determined to be  mc2. There for, each body of  rest mass  m  possesses  mc2  of â€Å"rest energy,† which potentially is available for conversion to other forms of energy. The mass-energy relation implies that if energy is released from the body as a result of such a conversion, then the rest mass of the body will decrease.Such a switch of rest energy to other forms of energy occurs in ordinary chemical reactions, but much larger conversions occur in  nuclear reactions. This is particularly true in the case of nuclear-fusion reactions that transform  hydrogen  to  helium, in which 0. 7 % of the original rest energy of the hydrogen is converted to other forms of energy. Although the  atomic bomb  proved that vast amounts of energy could be liberated from the  atom, it did not demonstrate the precision of Einstein’s equation. * Accretion of galaxies and st arsAfter a few hundred thousand years after the Big Bang, the Universe was cooled down and atoms were formed. As the Universe was further expanding and cooling, the atom particles lost kinetic energy and gravity began to attract them together forming regions of high mass density. The regions of high mass density began to attract nearby material and gain mass. This process is known as accretion. At some time or another, all matter in the universe formed discrete gas clouds known as protogalaxies. As further accretion occurred, galaxies were formed. Accretion also occurred inside galaxies, forming stars.As the average temperature of matter in the universe, then as the universe expands there is less hot matter such as stars and colder dark space/matter between it, so when you average things out, you get a lower temperature. * Relationship between the temperature of a star to the wavelength and color emitted from that star. Stars appear to be exclusively white at first glance. If we loo k carefully, we can see that there are a range of colors blue, white, red etc. stars are small blackbodies and their color variation is a direct consequence of their surface temperature.Cool stars radiate most of their energy in the red and infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum and there for appear red, while hot stars emit mostly at blue and ultra-violet wavelengths, making them appear blue or white. To estimate the surface temperature of a star, we can use the known relationship between the temperature of a blackbody and the wavelength of light where its spectrum peaks. That is, as you increase the temperature of a blackbody, the peak of its spectrum moves to shorter bluer wavelengths of light.This simple method is conceptually correct, but it cannot be used to obtain stellar temperatures accurately, because stars are  not perfect blackbodies. The presence of various elements in the stars atmosphere will cause certain wavelengths of light to be absorbed. Because these absorption lines are not uniformly distributed over the spectrum, they can alter the position of the spectral peak. Moreover, obtaining a usable spectrum of a star is a time-intensive process and is prohibitively inefficient for large samples of stars. Propose an experiment that can be conducted at home to find the mathematical relationship between brightness to its luminosity and distance. Shine a clear 100 Watt light bulb through a square hole in a piece of paper and see how many squares it illuminates on a piece of grid paper as you move the grid paper different distances away from the hole. Throughout the experiment, keep the light bulb and the piece of paper with the hole in it exactly 10 cm apart while you move the grid paper progressively farther away.The experiment works best if you turn the light bulb so that the shadow it casts through the hole is as sharp as possible this will usually be when the filament is held perpendicular to the paper. 1. Place the grid paper right a gainst the square hole, so it is also 10 cm from the light bulb. The bulb should illuminate one square on your grid paper. Now move the grid paper 20 cm from the bulb and see how many squares are illuminated. Repeat this measurement for distances of 30 cm and 40 cm from the bulb. 2.At each successive distance tested above, determine how many times farther away the grid paper was from the light bulb than it was at the first distance 10 cm. 3. Throughout this experiment, the amount of light passing through the square hole has remained constant since the distance between the light bulb and the hole has not changed. Thus, if the light is spread out over N squares, then only 1/N as much light falls on each individual square on the grid paper. Determine what fraction of the light coming through the square hole falls on any one square on the grid paper at each of the distances you examined. . Examine your data for trends and relationships. * Hertzsprung Russell diagram: Average mass (the s un = 1) Average luminosity (the sun = 1) * Main Sequence: A main sequence star is not really a type of star but a period in a stars life. When a star is in main sequence it is converting hydrogen into energy. It is then usually called a dwarf star. This is the longest period in a stars lifetime. Our Sun is a yellow dwarf in main sequence. A main sequence star’s mass ranges from 0. 10 M/M to 60 M/M the luminosity can start at 0. 008 L/L and reach 500,000 L/L. their surface temperature which is measured in kalvins can reach from 3000 K to 38,000 K. Once a protostar starts burning hydrogen in its core, it quickly passes through the T-Tauri stage (in a few million years) and becomes a main sequence star where its total mass determines all its structural properties. The three divisions in a stellar interior are the nuclear burning core, convective zone and radioactive zone. Energy, in the form of gamma-rays, is generated solely in the nuclear burning core.Energy is transferred tow ards the surface either in a radioactive manner or convection depending on which is more efficient at the temperatures, densities and opacities. Red Giants: Towards the end of a  star’s life, the temperature near the core rises and this causes the size of the star to expand. This is known to transform a main sequence star into a â€Å"Red Giant†. The average mass of a Red Giant is around 0. 4 to 0. 9 Betelgeuse is a red giant, it is 20 times bigger than the sun about 14,000 times brighter and its surface temperature is no more than 6,500 K.A stars evolution after the red giant phase depends on its mass. For stars greater than 1 solar mass, but less than 2 solar masses, the hydrogen burning shell eats its way outward leaving behind more helium ash. As the helium piles up, the core becomes more massive and contracts. The contraction heats the core as it becomes more dense. * White Dwarfs: Stars that have a lot of mass may end their lives as black holes neutron stars. A low or medium mass star, with a mass less than about 8 times the mass of our Sun will become a white dwarf.A typical white dwarf is about as massive as the Sun, yet only slightly bigger than the Earth. This makes white dwarfs one of the densest forms of matter, surpassed only by neutron stars and black holes. The average mass of a White Dwarf ranges from 1. 1 to 1. 7, the luminosity ranges from 1. 2 to 6. White dwarfs are quite common, being found in binary systems and in  clusters. Since they are remnants of stars born in the past, their numbers build up in the Galaxy over time. It is only because they are so faint that we fail to detect any except for the very closest ones. * Neutron star:A neutron star is a very small, super-dense star which is composed mostly of tightly-packed  neutrons. It has a thin atmosphere of  hydrogen. It has a diameter of about 5-10 miles (5-16 km) and a density of roughly 10  15  gm/cm3. Its mass is between 1 and 2 solar masses. * Proton â⠂¬â€œ Proton Cycle   and carbon cycle Proton-proton cycle,  also called  Proton-proton Reaction,  chain of  reactions that is the chief source of the energy radiated by the  Sun  and other cool main-sequence  stars. Another sequence of thermonuclear reactions, called the carbon cycle, provides much of the energy released by hotter stars.In a proton-proton cycle, four  hydrogen  nuclei (protons) are combined to form one  helium  nucleus; 0. 7 percent of the original mass is lost mainly by conversion into  heat energy, but some energy escapes in the form of  neutrinos  (? ). First, two hydrogen nuclei (1H) combine to form a hydrogen-2 nucleus (2H, deuterium) with the emission of a  positive electron  (e+, positron) and a neutrino (? ). The hydrogen-2 nucleus then rapidly captures another proton to form a helium-3 nucleus (3He), while emitting a  gamma ray  (? ). In symbols:

The Cosmic Engine Research Essay Example

The Cosmic Engine Research Essay Compare the views of Hubble and Friedman about the expansion of the universe: Edwin Hubble’s observation In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced that his observations of galaxies outside our own Milky Way showed that they were systematically moving away from us with a speed that was proportional to their distance from us. The more distant the galaxy, the faster it was receding from us. The universe was expanding after all, just as General Relativity originally predicted! Hubble observed that the light from a given galaxy was shifted further toward the red end of the light spectrum the further that galaxy was from our galaxy.The specific form of Hubbles expansion law is important: the speed of recession is proportional to distance. Hubble expressed this idea in an equation distance/time per megaparcec. A megaparcec is a really big distance (3. 26 million light-years). Alexander Friedman’s theory In the early 1920’s Friedman for told a theory were universe begins with a B ig Bang and continues expanding for untold billions of years (that’s the stage we’re in now. ) But after a long enough period of time, the mutual gravitational attraction of all the matter slows the expansion to a stop. The universe will eventually start to contract in a big crunch. Friedman embraced the idea that the equation in Einstein’s theory of relativity shows a universe that is in motion, and not constant.* A flow chart to show and describe the transformation of radiation into matter which followed the â€Å"big bang†: * Einstein’s view of the connection between matter and energy: Association between  mass  (m) and  energy (E) in Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity, complete by the formula E=  mc2, where  c  equals 300,000 km (186,000 miles) per second i. e. he  speed of light. In physical theories prior to that of  special relativity, mass and energy were seen as distinct entities. The energy of a body at rest cou ld be assigned an arbitrary value. In special relativity, the energy of a body at rest is determined to be  mc2. There for, each body of  rest mass  m  possesses  mc2  of â€Å"rest energy,† which potentially is available for conversion to other forms of energy. The mass-energy relation implies that if energy is released from the body as a result of such a conversion, then the rest mass of the body will decrease.Such a switch of rest energy to other forms of energy occurs in ordinary chemical reactions, but much larger conversions occur in  nuclear reactions. This is particularly true in the case of nuclear-fusion reactions that transform  hydrogen  to  helium, in which 0. 7 % of the original rest energy of the hydrogen is converted to other forms of energy. Although the  atomic bomb  proved that vast amounts of energy could be liberated from the  atom, it did not demonstrate the precision of Einstein’s equation. * Accretion of galaxies and st arsAfter a few hundred thousand years after the Big Bang, the Universe was cooled down and atoms were formed. As the Universe was further expanding and cooling, the atom particles lost kinetic energy and gravity began to attract them together forming regions of high mass density. The regions of high mass density began to attract nearby material and gain mass. This process is known as accretion. At some time or another, all matter in the universe formed discrete gas clouds known as protogalaxies. As further accretion occurred, galaxies were formed. Accretion also occurred inside galaxies, forming stars.As the average temperature of matter in the universe, then as the universe expands there is less hot matter such as stars and colder dark space/matter between it, so when you average things out, you get a lower temperature. * Relationship between the temperature of a star to the wavelength and color emitted from that star. Stars appear to be exclusively white at first glance. If we loo k carefully, we can see that there are a range of colors blue, white, red etc. stars are small blackbodies and their color variation is a direct consequence of their surface temperature.Cool stars radiate most of their energy in the red and infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum and there for appear red, while hot stars emit mostly at blue and ultra-violet wavelengths, making them appear blue or white. To estimate the surface temperature of a star, we can use the known relationship between the temperature of a blackbody and the wavelength of light where its spectrum peaks. That is, as you increase the temperature of a blackbody, the peak of its spectrum moves to shorter bluer wavelengths of light.This simple method is conceptually correct, but it cannot be used to obtain stellar temperatures accurately, because stars are  not perfect blackbodies. The presence of various elements in the stars atmosphere will cause certain wavelengths of light to be absorbed. Because these absorption lines are not uniformly distributed over the spectrum, they can alter the position of the spectral peak. Moreover, obtaining a usable spectrum of a star is a time-intensive process and is prohibitively inefficient for large samples of stars. Propose an experiment that can be conducted at home to find the mathematical relationship between brightness to its luminosity and distance. Shine a clear 100 Watt light bulb through a square hole in a piece of paper and see how many squares it illuminates on a piece of grid paper as you move the grid paper different distances away from the hole. Throughout the experiment, keep the light bulb and the piece of paper with the hole in it exactly 10 cm apart while you move the grid paper progressively farther away.The experiment works best if you turn the light bulb so that the shadow it casts through the hole is as sharp as possible this will usually be when the filament is held perpendicular to the paper. 1. Place the grid paper right a gainst the square hole, so it is also 10 cm from the light bulb. The bulb should illuminate one square on your grid paper. Now move the grid paper 20 cm from the bulb and see how many squares are illuminated. Repeat this measurement for distances of 30 cm and 40 cm from the bulb. 2.At each successive distance tested above, determine how many times farther away the grid paper was from the light bulb than it was at the first distance 10 cm. 3. Throughout this experiment, the amount of light passing through the square hole has remained constant since the distance between the light bulb and the hole has not changed. Thus, if the light is spread out over N squares, then only 1/N as much light falls on each individual square on the grid paper. Determine what fraction of the light coming through the square hole falls on any one square on the grid paper at each of the distances you examined. . Examine your data for trends and relationships. * Hertzsprung Russell diagram: Average mass (the s un = 1) Average luminosity (the sun = 1) * Main Sequence: A main sequence star is not really a type of star but a period in a stars life. When a star is in main sequence it is converting hydrogen into energy. It is then usually called a dwarf star. This is the longest period in a stars lifetime. Our Sun is a yellow dwarf in main sequence. A main sequence star’s mass ranges from 0. 10 M/M to 60 M/M the luminosity can start at 0. 008 L/L and reach 500,000 L/L. their surface temperature which is measured in kalvins can reach from 3000 K to 38,000 K. Once a protostar starts burning hydrogen in its core, it quickly passes through the T-Tauri stage (in a few million years) and becomes a main sequence star where its total mass determines all its structural properties. The three divisions in a stellar interior are the nuclear burning core, convective zone and radioactive zone. Energy, in the form of gamma-rays, is generated solely in the nuclear burning core.Energy is transferred tow ards the surface either in a radioactive manner or convection depending on which is more efficient at the temperatures, densities and opacities. Red Giants: Towards the end of a  star’s life, the temperature near the core rises and this causes the size of the star to expand. This is known to transform a main sequence star into a â€Å"Red Giant†. The average mass of a Red Giant is around 0. 4 to 0. 9 Betelgeuse is a red giant, it is 20 times bigger than the sun about 14,000 times brighter and its surface temperature is no more than 6,500 K.A stars evolution after the red giant phase depends on its mass. For stars greater than 1 solar mass, but less than 2 solar masses, the hydrogen burning shell eats its way outward leaving behind more helium ash. As the helium piles up, the core becomes more massive and contracts. The contraction heats the core as it becomes more dense. * White Dwarfs: Stars that have a lot of mass may end their lives as black holes neutron stars. A low or medium mass star, with a mass less than about 8 times the mass of our Sun will become a white dwarf.A typical white dwarf is about as massive as the Sun, yet only slightly bigger than the Earth. This makes white dwarfs one of the densest forms of matter, surpassed only by neutron stars and black holes. The average mass of a White Dwarf ranges from 1. 1 to 1. 7, the luminosity ranges from 1. 2 to 6. White dwarfs are quite common, being found in binary systems and in  clusters. Since they are remnants of stars born in the past, their numbers build up in the Galaxy over time. It is only because they are so faint that we fail to detect any except for the very closest ones. * Neutron star:A neutron star is a very small, super-dense star which is composed mostly of tightly-packed  neutrons. It has a thin atmosphere of  hydrogen. It has a diameter of about 5-10 miles (5-16 km) and a density of roughly 10  15  gm/cm3. Its mass is between 1 and 2 solar masses. * Proton â⠂¬â€œ Proton Cycle   and carbon cycle Proton-proton cycle,  also called  Proton-proton Reaction,  chain of  reactions that is the chief source of the energy radiated by the  Sun  and other cool main-sequence  stars. Another sequence of thermonuclear reactions, called the carbon cycle, provides much of the energy released by hotter stars.In a proton-proton cycle, four  hydrogen  nuclei (protons) are combined to form one  helium  nucleus; 0. 7 percent of the original mass is lost mainly by conversion into  heat energy, but some energy escapes in the form of  neutrinos  (? ). First, two hydrogen nuclei (1H) combine to form a hydrogen-2 nucleus (2H, deuterium) with the emission of a  positive electron  (e+, positron) and a neutrino (? ). The hydrogen-2 nucleus then rapidly captures another proton to form a helium-3 nucleus (3He), while emitting a  gamma ray  (? ). In symbols:

Gulf Oil Spill Essay Example

Gulf Oil Spill Essay Seunghwan Lee Professor Poe En 102 11/08/2010 Causes and Effects of Gulf Oil Disaster As the situation of environment is becoming worse than ever these days, the explosion of Deepwater Horizon ship has been making things the worst with the enormous damages since this incident happened on April 20th 2010. This disastrous accident happened under the 2nd biggest oil company BP’s poor responsibility. According to this accident, about 30 laborers died or got deadly hurt then the ship started to sink down couple days after the exploding. As an unofficial said that it was spilling out 35,000 to 60,000 gallons of oil for a day from the borehole in deep sea. (â€Å"Oil estimate raised to 35,000-60,000 barrels a day†) In fact, however, it was hard to estimate how speedy the oil was spilling since it started to spill out from too deep. This problem brought controversy nowadays since the police were not even sure how big this trouble was. This disaster is still causing the end of marine animals, fishing industries, tourism and even wild animals’ place to live by marine pollutions. Although the situation is not easy to bear, if people know what exact causes and effects of this accident, there must be the way to be closed for solution. The BP’s efforts to resolve is not actually seemed that it’s able to cover the seriousness of this accident any soon since it’s like uncountable costs would be charged to clean up the oil and restore the damage. Furthermore, some experts predict that more than 100 years will be needed to make it up. However, these days, BP is putting efforts to burn up the oil on the sea. That indicates they try to cover their fault step by step. Figure 1. We will write a custom essay sample on Gulf Oil Spill specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Gulf Oil Spill specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Gulf Oil Spill specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This is how the BP is burning up the oil which is flowing on the sea. now all holes are blocked but 560millions of oil already spilled out (Bourne). Nevertheless the BP’s efforts, there still are many reasons that lead this problem stuck. One case of it is the â€Å"Not Me† Blame-shifting between BP and Halliburton. Since BP is claiming that what Halliburton did was too unstable and Halliburton is claiming that they have tested enough times to make sure that it is safe, both companies are teasing themselves to shift the responsibilities to each other without knowing that it makes the progress of resolving slower than they planned. Halliburton is an oil company that has failed few times to block the holes with cement then it caused more spilled oil than BP expected. After all, BP became to be responsible for the most of cleaning up cost under the law. Also some contractors had to face the rest of costs; those contractors include Transocean, the rigs operator; Halliburton, the company responsible for cementing the well; and Cameron International, the maker of the blowout preventer, a device designed to shut off a well. Krauss and Elisabeth) (â€Å"The Latest Gulf Outrage†) Although many people cancelled their vacations due to the spill, hotels close to the coasts of Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama reported dramatic increases in business during the first half of May 2010. However, the increase was likely due to the influx of people who had come to work with oil removal efforts. Jim Hutchinson, assistant secretary for the Louisiana Office of Tourism, called the occupancy numbers misleading, but not surpr ising. Because of the oil slick, the hotels are completely full of people dealing with that problem, he said. Then added Theyre certainly not coming here as tourists. People arent sport fishing, they arent buying fuel at the marinas, and they arent staying at the little hotels on the coast and eating at the restaurants. (Reed) As it sounds like, this disaster took the beauty of nature which helps people to rest. It is also caused of health consequences. As of May 29, ten oil spill clean-up workers had been admitted to West Jefferson Medical Center in Marrero, Louisiana. Two of the cleanup workers had to have hard time suffering from symptoms of dehydration. At a press briefing about the May 26 medical evacuation of seven crewmembers from Vessels of Opportunity working in the Breton Sound area, Coast Guard Captain Meredith Austin, Unified Command Deputy Incident Commander in Houma, LA, said that air monitoring done in advance of beginning work showed no volatile organic compounds above limits of concern. No respiratory protection was issued, Austin said because air ratings were taken and there were no values found to be at an unsafe level, prior to us sending them in there. (Elizabeth) Figure 2. This is the Picture of damaged bird which shows how serious the situation is (Witt). The Political Buzz Examiner Ryan Witt reports that even though 70% of spilled oil has burned, the remaining 30% of oil left on the sea still 5 times larger than the last biggest oil spill Exxon Valdez. As the picture shows that what the animals go through is not any kind of game for the companies that are responsible on it. No one can even sure that how hugely people have been destroying the environment according to Witt’s comment of â€Å"There may be much less environmental damage that was previously anticipated, or there may be much more, that we simply do not know yet. All the scientists agree that more studies and research will have to be done to see what the long-term environmental impacts of the spill are. † (Witt) Same happens for the fishes. For instance, six months into the BP oil spill, satellite data from the European Space Agency says that 20 percent of juvenile bluefin tuna have been killed by BP’s oil spill and more than half of blue fin tuna is died by the sea pollution in the past 30 years. Blue fin tuna has been banned fishing since it has been declining too much but this once people’s mistake reduced the 20% of valuable lives. This can be described as tragedy. Including oiled blue fin tuna, for polluted fishing industry harm estimated cost about $2. 5 billion. McDermott) BP has done unforgivable tragedy way too far. No matter how hard they try to clean the ocean up, it’s mostly like impossible to make things right at this point. In the other word, BP has become a terrible murderer that killed uncountable lives and environments. Unfortunately, furthermore, they were harmed more than ever by themselves either. There actually is no way to fix this situation up. However, to think positively, if they turn their mind as it was big lesson to not make the same happen again, it could be the big opportunity to step up. It might be too cruel to give the BP lessons from this incident but, no matter how huge the fault is, it’s always better to get a moral after the error. Works Cited â€Å"Oil estimate raised to 35,000-60,000 barrels a day† CNN 16 June. 2010. Web. 8 Nov. 2010. Bourne, Joel K. Jr. †Is Another Deepwater Disaster Inevitable? † National Geographic, Oct. 2010. Web. 8 Nov. 2010. The Latest Gulf Outrage. New York Times 29 Oct. 2010: A30(L). The New York Times. Web. 8 Nov. 2010. Reed, Travis. Spill hasnt yet emptied hotels on Gulf Coast. The Sun News. Associated Press. 5 May. 2010. Web. 8 Nov. 2010. Elizabeth, Grossman. BP Lies about Air Toxicity as Gulf Workers Are Hospitalized. The Faster Times. 1 June. 2010. Web. 8 Nov. 2010. Witt, Ryan. â€Å"NOAA Report on Gulf Oil Spill Draws Criticism for Many Assumptions. † Examiner. com. 5 Oct. 2010. Web. 8 Nov. 2010. McDermott, Matthew. â€Å"One-Fifth Of Juvenile Atlantic Bluefin Tuna Killed by BP Oil Spill† Treehugger. 20 Oct. 2010. Web. 8 Nov. 2010 Krauss, Clifford, and Elisabeth, Rosenthal. The price and who pays: updates from the Gulf. New York Times 13 May 20 10: A18(L). The New York Times. Web. 8 Nov. 2010.

Critically examine two theoretical perspectives, The Feminist Theory and Psychoanalysis Essays

Critically examine two theoretical perspectives, The Feminist Theory and Psychoanalysis Essays Critically examine two theoretical perspectives, The Feminist Theory and Psychoanalysis Essay Critically examine two theoretical perspectives, The Feminist Theory and Psychoanalysis Essay Essay Topic: Sociology In academic writing on media practice different theoretical perspectives are applied according to the authors research agenda. Critically examine TWO theoretical perspectives before providing examples of how each has been applied within academic writing on the media. After comparing these theoretical perspectives say why ONE will be more relevant for your dissertation work in Level 6. For this essay I have chosen to critically examine two theoretical perspectives which will be The Feminist Theory and Psychoanalysis. I will describe the origins of these theoretical perspectives, detailing how they came about and why they are useful in academic writing on media practice. Then I will analyse two pieces of academic writing each of which use a theoretical perspective I have chosen to discuss. Barbara Brooks Feminist Perspectives on the body which deals with the use of some changes in feminist thinking about the body. Stevi Jackson and Jackie Jones Contemporary Feminist Theories, the section on psychoanalysis. Feminist theory seeks to analyse the conditions which shape womens lives and to explore cultural understandings of what it means to be a woman. It was initially guided by the political aims of the womans Movement the need to understand womens subordination and our exclusion from, or marginalisation within, a variety of cultural and social arenas. Feminists refuse to accept that inequalities between woman and men are natural and inevitable and insist that they should be questioned. Theory, for us, is not an abstract intellectual activity divorced from womens lives, but seeks to explain the conditions under which those lives are lived. (Stevi Jackson and Jackie Jones, 1998, p. 1) In a way, most feminist thinking could be described as an engagement of one sort or another with what it means to be and to be perceived to be, a female body. It is hard to come across feminist writing that is not at some point connected to issues of the body. There have been a lot of Feminist thinkers through time who have had vastly different responses to female bodies, which still continue today. Issues of the body have been central to most feminist thinking, in one way or another, but there is also evidence that there has been a large number of feminist publications with the word body in the title, over the last decade. There have been some developments of studies in feminism called Corporeal feminism, which is looking at the characteristic of the body as opposed to the mind or spirit. One of the best known English writers in this field is Elizabeth Grosz. Grosz is the author of numerous works, including Volatile Bodies: toward a Corporeal Feminism; Jacques Lacan: a Feminist Introduction, and Becomings: Explorations in Time, Memory and Futures. Groszs work is very much influenced by European philosophers such as Nietzsche, Merleau-ponty, Deleuze, Guattari, Foucault and Spinozist. Elizabeth Grosz believed that; What they share is first, anti-Cartesianism, a refusal of the mind/ body or nature/ culture oppositions. Second, they share a dynamic rather than a static ontology, an ontology rooted in becoming rather than being. And third, they share a privileging of questions of ontology over questions of epistemology. This means that these various, historically-linked figures form a kind of counter-history to the dominant theoretical strands making up the history of philosophy. There are, of course, other figures that could be included in such a counter-history, but Deleuze has provided us with a powerful starting point from which to work backwards to claim such a history. In recent years, Elizabeth Grosz has reinvestigated Irigarays theory to formulate a new phenomenological view on the body. Grosz rejects the Platonic idea that the body is a brute or passive entity, but sees the body itself as constitutive of systems of meaning. In Volatile Bodies, she redefines the body using Deleuzes post-oedipal framework of the Desiring Machine. The body becomes a desiring machine when it de-humanizes the object of desire and dissolves into surrounding environments. The subject becomes one with the machine-like apparatus and senses its merging components as changing, segmented and discontinuous waves, flows, and intensities. Katrien Jacobs (http://web. gc. cuny. du/csctw/found_object/text/grosz. htm) Grosz asks questions about what constitutes a body and, in particular, about where, if at all, there can be located a specifically sexed body that is somehow before or beyond culture. Grosz developed a new theory which was not trying to answer a question about what came first, she wanted to look at a different explanation of the body, which rendered a question of redundant. Grosz pushe d the boundaries of existing terms. A central figure for grosz in rethinking the self as body and mind rather than body separated from mind is the Mobius strip: Bodies and minds are not two distinct substances or two kinds of attributes of a single substance but somewhere in between The Mobius strip has the advantage of showing the inflection of mind into body and body into mind, the ways in which, through a kind of twisting or inversion, one side becomes another. This model also provides a way of problematizing and rethinking the relations between the inside and outside of a subject. Grosz, Elizabeth (1994) Volatile Bodies: Towards a Corporeal Feminism. Grosz challenges commonsense ideas about sexed bodies, and about the construction of knowledge; a movement in feminist thought has been from epistemology (theory of knowledge (hence, episteme as a component of that knowledge, something which is a building block of a particular knowledge system), toward ontology (the study of being, existing in the world) towards the question of What is a woman?. There has been a tendency to assume an essential femaleness which for some feminists was something to be ignored or minimised, and for others was a cause of celebration in answering the question What is a woman?. The focus of a womans movement around a universal idea of woman has been increasingly critiqued as imperialist: blind to its own exclusions and assumptions. The development of an identity politics organised around a self-defined identity of sexuality, race, ethnicity, etc. challenges this universalism. The assertion of womans rights as human rights rests on the humanists ideas of the Enlightenment: the belief in the rights of an individual human subject. Arguably, the late twentieth century is dismantling the idea of the unified human subject; this poses problems for feminism. Second-wave feminism, following the work of Simone de Beauvoir, argues for the separation of sex (the natural, given male or female body) and gender (the cultural definitions of masculinity and femininity). Social constructionism relegates the body to no more than a tabula rasa for inscription by culture. Social constructionist explanations have been criticised for ignoring sexuality and racial difference. Judith Butler (and others) points to the way in which binary gender formation relies on an assumed heterosexuality. She tries to re-think gender as performativity (Judith Butlers theory of gender as a continually repeated performance): a series of acts repeated until they appear as natural extensions of the body engaged in the performance. Butler, like other corporeal feminists (Corporeality: literally the being of the body; when the adjective, corporeal is coupled with feminism, it denotes a recently developed theorising that attempts to reorient thinking about the female body and subjectivity in ways that challenge the dominant episteme of the mind/body split. works to change the thinking of Western philosophy and, particularly, to move beyond the dualism (binarism (or dualism): the pattern of thinking and conceptualisation that divides everything into opposites; one of the feminist objections to it is that in the set of supposedly equal opposites, one set of terms can clearly be designated as feminine and the other masculine, with higher or positive values, on the whole, attached to the latter. ) of Cartesian thought. Luce Irigaray and Hi li ne Cixous also challenge this dualism, attempting to re-inscribe woman in multiple ways that resist binary oppositions of western thinking. Elizabeth Grosz argues that such a rethinking of and through the body is crucial to feminist politics. Psychoanalysis is concerned in the account, or analysis, of the mind, the psyches structure and its relation to the body, and uses that as the basis for treating certain kinds of sickness. Psychoanalysis is well known as the talking cure; psychoanalysis is closely concerned with gender, sexuality, familial relations, and the fact that their expression and construction are not always available to the conscious mind. These areas are those of interest of feminists. Psychoanalysis has been seen by some feminist writers as another weapon in the armoury of patriarchy. To enlist on behalf of feminism the insights of psychoanalysis, in particular the concept of the unconscious and the idea that gender is a psychic and not a biological identity, post-Freudian writers have focused on the very early pre-oedipal stages of a Childs life, and mothering. Pg 162 Sue vice Contemporary Feminist Theories Psychoanalysis was first developed by Sigmund Freud, based on the exploration of unconscious mental processes displayed within dreams. Its aim was to reveal repressed anxieties and overcome the effects of bad experiences in early childhood. Freud believed that the location of desire was between what we see and what we imagine for ourselves. Freud established three principles. The unconscious, argued Freud, consists of the activity of primary sexual and destructive instincts, which are in conflict with internal forces of self-preservation and external social forces. Second, the analysis of dreams proved invaluable in accessing the unconscious; as did, thirdly, Freuds working out of the relationship between primary (unconscious) and secondary (conscious) thought processes. Later on Freud developed a theory called the Oedipus complex and infantile sexuality. Freuds central concepts took the male child as a model, so that the female seemed like an imperfect version. Melanie Klein revised and extended several Freudian categories in the light of child analysis during the 1940s and 1950s. Klein offered an alternative to the Freudian view of the maternal body as one which is superseded by the superior paternal law, and is only a site for regressive feelings in later life. Klein argues that children have a very early knowledge of the mothers vaginia as well as the fathers penis, and so the division into two sexes is inevitable. Kleins concept of sexual difference appears more rigid than Freuds; she has made a great impact on feminist theory. This is partly due to Kleins emphasis on the importance of the maternal, in contrast to Freuds on the role of the father, and Freuds habit of writing out the mother in his case histories. Klein was also distinctive in giving priority to interpersonal relations over individual instinct. A specific psychoanalytic theory can be directly associated with the fascination of the images on the screen, that of Jacques Lagans mirror stage. It deals with the point in which a young infant realises its own image within the mirror and has its own identity. In recognising its own image, the infant develops a fascination with itself and begins to construct its own identity. However, what the child constructs is a representation of them selves because it notices itself as an image and begins to unify itself with the image. Therefore, an element of delusion sets in because the subject becomes an image, even though the image is a replica of the individual; it is in fact a representation of the individual. The nature of our egoistic selves, as represented through the identification of the image can be connected to the illusory nature displayed on the film screen. As our reflection is nothing more than an image we take narcissistic pleasure in, so to can we now identify with the gloriously complete presentation of a spectacle on the screen. (Turner, 1999, p. 134) The future of psychoanalytic theory within feminism seems very rich. As well as the return to Klein, signalled for instance by the establishment of the womens Therapy Centre London (Wright 1992: 457-61), psychoanalytic feminism underlies recent developments in lesbian theory, gender studies and queer theory. The latter in particular has benefited from the long-standing debate in feminist psychoanalysis between signifier and signified, body and language, literal and metaphorical, as Caroline Evans and Lorraine Gamman suggests in a Queer Romance. Some representations, what we call queer representations, seem to share the capacity to disturb stable definitions (Burston and Richardson 1995:46). New work is beginning, although rather slowly, on psychoanalysis and race; as psychoanalysis has been discourse about, but not of, women, it has been neither about, nor of, people of colour. It is interesting to speculate whether issues of oedipalisation, gender construction, and transference, in particular, will be revitalised by the incorporation of racial difference. To return to Freuds idea that it is only accidental that there are two sexes, and there could just as easily have been four drive-based positions instead, it may turn out to be the case that the law of the father is the law of the white supremacist father specifically (Stephanie munro, forthcoming work on Irigaray and race), while other fathers may have other laws. Sue Vice pg 173 Contemporary Feminist Theories For my dissertation I will be using The Feminist Theory as one of my main theoretical perspectives. My dissertation will be analysing what affects media images have on body satisfaction? I will be discussing not only female but male satisfaction of the body as in the past there has been a lot of writing on the female body but now there are a lot more studies on the male body and how they feel. I will be looking at the Feminist perspectives on the body, as the body has been central to feminist thinking. I will be looking at the new concept that has been developed corporeal feminism. Which is the being of the body; when the adjective, corporeal is coupled with feminism, it denotes a recently developed theorising that attempts to reorient thinking about the female body and subjectivity in ways that challenge the dominant episteme of the mind/body split. It will also be relevant for me to use content analysis and mass communication models such as the Hypodermic Model in my dissertation which will concentrate on the effects of a specific aspect of media communication on the audience.

Macroeconomics Theory Speech or Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Macroeconomics Theory - Speech or Presentation Example The AS curve will also shift upwards from the left margin to the right one. i. A negative inflation shock in the economy will lead to an escalation of the AS curve from the left to the right side of the graph. However, the AD curve will shift from AD1 to AD2 from the right to the left side. ii. The shifts in the AD curves from the right to the left margins of the graph will influence the new the output to reduce from the right to the left margin from Y1 to Y2 because of the reduced government spending. Therefore, the changes in G1 to G2 downwards in the vertical axis will lead to a reduction in the demand and production factors of the economy. The graph shows that the U.S economy will experience a period of in increased output in its markets because of the positive shifts in demand and supply. The positive inflation shock will lead to increased GDP and GNP following the subsequent increase in the buyers’ income levels and the marginal increase in the country’s total output. The financial crises will influence stagnation in the country’s output. It is evident that the output will be Y1 after a 3% increase in the government’s expenditure hence the prices will increase to cater for the increased level of demand in the absence of supply. b) The federal government should resolve to the use of tax cuts. The other alternative policy to restructure the country’s economy will be the implementation of price regulations that will coerce the producers to increase the output rather than the prices. c) The impact of the federal monetary policy in solving the financial crises at the short run period will lead to a shift in the production from Y1 to Y2, a factor that will influence the need for labor; hence, the employed people will affect the country’s GDP and